1. Surgery

What It Is:

Surgery is a medical procedure involving the physical removal of a tumour or cancerous tissue from the body. It is one of the oldest and most commonly used cancer treatments and is typically employed when the cancer is localised — meaning it has not spread to other parts of the body.

When It’s Used:

When cancer is detected early and remains confined to one area
To remove as much of the tumour as possible
Sometimes performed to determine the extent or stage of cancer (diagnostic surgery or biopsy)
Used in combination with other therapies as part of a comprehensive treatment approach

Types of Cancer Commonly Treated:

Breast cancer
Prostate cancer
Colorectal cancer
Lung cancer (especially in early stages)

Potential Side Effects:

Pain and discomfort around the surgical site
Risk of infection and bleeding
Fatigue during the recovery period
Scarring and physical changes, depending on the type of surgery

2. Radiation Therapy

What It Is:

Radiation therapy uses high-energy particles or rays such as X-rays, gamma rays, or protons — to destroy or damage cancer cells. It damages the DNA inside cancer cells, preventing them from multiplying and causing them to die.

Types:

External beam radiation: Delivered from a machine outside the body, targeting the cancer site
Internal radiation (Brachytherapy): Radioactive material is placed inside the body near the cancer cells

When It’s Used:

As a primary treatment for certain cancers
To shrink tumours before surgery
After surgery to eliminate any remaining cancer cells
For palliative care to relieve pain and symptoms in advanced cases

Common Cancers Treated:

Head and neck cancers
Cervical cancer
Prostate cancer
Brain tumours

Side Effects:

Skin irritation, redness, or peeling in the treated area
Persistent fatigue
Hair loss (limited to the treatment site)
Difficulty swallowing (if radiation is directed near the throat)

3. Chemotherapy

What It Is:

Chemotherapy involves the use of strong anti-cancer drugs that travel throughout the body to kill fast-growing cells, including cancer cells. It is a systemic treatment, meaning it affects the entire body rather than a specific area.

When It’s Used:

To shrink tumours before surgery (neoadjuvant therapy)
After surgery to destroy residual cancer cells (adjuvant therapy)
When cancer has spread (metastasised)
Often combined with radiation, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy

Cancers Commonly Treated:

Leukaemia
Lymphoma
Lung cancer
Ovarian cancer

Side Effects:

Nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite
Hair loss on the scalp and sometimes the body
Weakened immune system, increasing the risk of infection
Mouth sores, fatigue, and anaemia

4. Immunotherapy

What It Is:

Immunotherapy enhances the body’s natural immune system to fight cancer. It helps the immune system identify and destroy cancer cells more effectively.

Types:

Checkpoint inhibitors: Help immune cells recognise and attack tumours
CAR T-cell therapy: Patient’s T-cells are modified to better target cancer
Monoclonal antibodies: Lab-made proteins that target specific parts of cancer cells
Cancer vaccines: Stimulate the immune system to recognise cancer-specific antigens

When It’s Used:

In advanced or recurrent cancers
When conventional treatments have failed
Often used in combination with other therapies

Cancers Commonly Treated:

Melanoma
Lung cancer
Kidney cancer
Certain blood cancers

Side Effects:

Flu-like symptoms (fever, chills, muscle aches)
Fatigue and weakness
Skin rashes or itching
Inflammation in organs such as the lungs (pneumonitis) or intestines (colitis)

5. Targeted Therapy

What It Is:

Targeted therapy uses drugs or other substances to specifically target the genetic changes or proteins in cancer cells that promote growth and survival.

How It Works:

Interferes with signalling pathways involved in tumour growth
Blocks angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels)
Targets specific enzymes or receptors mutated in cancer cells

When It’s Used:

When genetic testing identifies specific mutations
For cancers resistant to chemotherapy
In advanced or metastatic cancers

Examples of Targeted Cancers:

Breast cancer (HER2-positive)
Colorectal cancer (KRAS mutation)
Chronic myeloid leukaemia (BCR-ABL mutation)

Side Effects:

Diarrhoea and digestive issues
Skin conditions (rash, dryness)
Liver function problems
High blood pressure

6. Hormone Therapy

What It Is:

Hormone therapy slows or halts the growth of cancers that rely on hormones such as oestrogen or testosterone.

When It’s Used:

In hormone-sensitive cancers like breast and prostate cancer
As an adjuvant therapy after surgery or radiation
For metastatic hormone receptor-positive cancers

How It Works:

Reduces the body’s hormone levels
Blocks hormone receptors on cancer cells

Common Cancers Treated:

Breast cancer (oestrogen or progesterone receptor-positive)
Prostate cancer (androgen-sensitive)

Side Effects:

Hot flashes and sweating
Mood swings and low mood
Reduced sexual desire
Fatigue and weight gain

7. Stem Cell Transplant

What It Is:

Also known as a bone marrow transplant, this treatment replaces damaged bone marrow with healthy stem cells that can develop into various blood cells.

Types:

Autologous Transplant: Uses the patient’s own stem cells
Allogeneic Transplant: Uses stem cells from a donor

When It’s Used:

For blood-related cancers such as leukaemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma
After high-dose chemotherapy or radiation

Side Effects:

Graft-versus-host disease (in allogeneic transplants)
Increased risk of infection
Bleeding or bruising
Long-term fatigue

8. Precision Medicine

What It Is:

Precision or personalised medicine tailors cancer treatment based on the individual’s genetic profile and the genetic characteristics of the tumour.

When It’s Used:

When genetic or molecular testing reveals actionable mutations
Often integrated into advanced cancer care or clinical trials

Benefits:

More effective treatments
Reduced risk of unnecessary side effects
Better prediction of treatment response

9. Palliative Care

What It Is:

Palliative care is focused on improving the quality of life for cancer patients, particularly those with advanced or terminal conditions. It is not aimed at curing the disease but at relieving symptoms and improving comfort.

Who It’s For:

Patients experiencing chronic discomfort or pain from cancer
Those undergoing intensive treatments with side effects
Individuals with terminal or late-stage cancers

It Included:

Pain and symptom management
Psychological and emotional support
Nutritional and social care
End-of-life support and spiritual guidance

Cancer Treatment Options: Surgery, Radiation & More